Question
Explain Methodology of HGP
✓
Answer
→ The methods involved two major approaches. One approach focused on identifying all the genes that are expressed as RNA (referred to as Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTS).
→ The other took the blind approach of simply sequencing the whole set of genome that contained all the coding and non-coding sequence, and later assigning different regions in the sequence with functions (a term referred to as Sequence Annotation).
→ For sequencing, the total DNA from a cell is isolated and converted into random fragments of relatively smaller sizes (recall DNA is a very long polymer, and there are technical limitations in sequencing very long pieces of DNA) and cloned in suitable host using specialised vectors.
→ The cloning resulted into amplification of each piece of DNA fragment so that it subsequently could be sequenced with ease.
→ The commonly used hosts were bacteria and yeast, and the vectors were known as BAC (bacterial artificial chromosomes); and YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes).
→ The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencers that worked on the principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger. (Remember, Sanger is also credited for developing method for determination of amino acid sequences in proteins).
→ There sequences were then arranged based on some overlapping regions present in them.
→ This required generation of overlapping fragments for sequencing. Alignment of these sequences was humanly not possible.
→ Therefore, specialised computer based programs were developed.
→ These sequences were subsequently annotated and were assigned to each chromosome.
→ The sequence of chromosome 1 was completed only in May 2006 (this was the last of the 24 human chromosomes - 22 autosomes and X and Y - to be sequenced).
→ Another challenging task was assigning the genetic and physical maps on the genome.
→ This was generated using information on polymorphism of restriction endonuclease recognition sites, and some repetitive DNA sequences known as microsatellites (one of the applications of polymorphism in repetitive DNA sequences shall be explained in next section of DNA fingerprinting).
→ The other took the blind approach of simply sequencing the whole set of genome that contained all the coding and non-coding sequence, and later assigning different regions in the sequence with functions (a term referred to as Sequence Annotation).
→ For sequencing, the total DNA from a cell is isolated and converted into random fragments of relatively smaller sizes (recall DNA is a very long polymer, and there are technical limitations in sequencing very long pieces of DNA) and cloned in suitable host using specialised vectors.
→ The cloning resulted into amplification of each piece of DNA fragment so that it subsequently could be sequenced with ease.
→ The commonly used hosts were bacteria and yeast, and the vectors were known as BAC (bacterial artificial chromosomes); and YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes).
→ The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencers that worked on the principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger. (Remember, Sanger is also credited for developing method for determination of amino acid sequences in proteins).
→ There sequences were then arranged based on some overlapping regions present in them.
→ This required generation of overlapping fragments for sequencing. Alignment of these sequences was humanly not possible.
→ Therefore, specialised computer based programs were developed.
→ These sequences were subsequently annotated and were assigned to each chromosome.
→ The sequence of chromosome 1 was completed only in May 2006 (this was the last of the 24 human chromosomes - 22 autosomes and X and Y - to be sequenced).
→ Another challenging task was assigning the genetic and physical maps on the genome.
→ This was generated using information on polymorphism of restriction endonuclease recognition sites, and some repetitive DNA sequences known as microsatellites (one of the applications of polymorphism in repetitive DNA sequences shall be explained in next section of DNA fingerprinting).
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Read the following and answer any four questions from (i) to (v) given below: Ecosystem diversity is the variety of forms in the ecosystem due to diversity of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes like nutrient recycling, food webs, energy flow, etc. Study the given figure. 
→ - Identify different types of diversity denoted by 1, 2 and 3 in the given figure.
| | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| (a) | Alpha diversity | Beta diversity | Gamma diversity |
| (b) | Gamma diversity | Alpha diversity | Beta diversity |
| (c) | Gamma diversity | Beta diversity | Alpha diversity |
| (d) | Beta diversity | Alpha diversity | Gamma diversity |
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- Between conununities.
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- None of these.
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$\alpha-\text{diversity}$
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$\gamma-\text{diversity}$
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$\beta-\text{diversity}$
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$\delta-\text{diversity}$
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Read the following text carefully and answer the questions that follow:
i. Identify the hormones X and Y respectively. (1)
ii. Label W and Z. (1)
iii. Name the hormones produced only during pregnancy in human female. Mention their source organs. (2)
OR
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ii. Label W and Z. (1)
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In angiosperms, the pollen grains are being transferred from the anther to the stigma and is termed pollination. This phenomenon was first discovered by Camerarius (1694) in the end of seventeenth century. Pollen grains are immobile. They cannot reach the stigma by themselves. An external agent is required for this. The pollination is mainly of two types-self pollination and cross pollination. The diagram given below shows two plants of the same species showing different types of pollination.
In angiosperms, the pollen grains are being transferred from the anther to the stigma and is termed pollination. This phenomenon was first discovered by Camerarius (1694) in the end of seventeenth century. Pollen grains are immobile. They cannot reach the stigma by themselves. An external agent is required for this. The pollination is mainly of two types-self pollination and cross pollination. The diagram given below shows two plants of the same species showing different types of pollination.
- What is transferred between the plants in the process indicated by arrow P?
- Ova.
- Pollen.
- Nutrients.
- Seeds.
- Which of the following statements is correct regarding processes P, Q and R?
- Processes P, Q and R introduce genetic variability in the offspring of sexually reproducing plants X and Y.
- Wind serves as agent for process Q if plants X and Y belong to Genus Salvia.
- Flowers of plants X and Y need to produce odour and nectar for completion of processes P and Q if they are entomophilous.
- If plants X and Y belong to Genus Cannabis, then their flowers need to produce sticky and heavy pollens in very small amount for accomplishment of process Q.
- Identify the processes P, Q and R.
| S. No | P | Q | R |
| (a) | Geitonogamy | Xenogamy | Autogamy |
| (b) | Allogamy | Chasmogamy | Cleistogamy |
| (c) | Autogamy | Geitonogamy | Xenogamy |
| (d) | Geitonogamy | Allogamy | Autogamy |
- In Catliarantl1us, the growth of style brings the stigma in contact of ripe anthers present on the mouth of corolla tube. This is an example of:
- Homogamy.
- Cleistogamy.
- Geitonogamy.
- Xenogamy.
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- P.
- Q.
- R.
- All of these.
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Gene regulation is the mechanism of switching off and switching on of the genes depending upon the requirement of cells and the state of development. Gene regulation is of two types : negative and positive. In negative generegulation the genes continue expressing their effect till their activity is suppressed. Positive gene regulation is the one in which the genes remain non-expressed unless and until they are induced to do it. Operon model is a co-ordinated group of genes such as structural gene, operator gene, promoter gene, regulator gene which function together and regulate a metabolic pathway as a unit, e.g., lac operon, trp operon, ara operon, etc.
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- Transcription
- Processing/splicing
- Translation
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- Inducible operon system usually occurs in A pathways. Nutrient molecules serve as B to stimulate production of the enzymes necessary for their breakdown. Genes for inducible operon are usually switched C and the repressor is synthesised in an D form.
| S.no | A | B | C | D |
| (a) | anabolic | corepressor | on | inactive |
| (b) | anabolic | inducer | off | active |
| (c) | catabolic | inducer | off | active |
| (d) | catabolic | corepressor | on | inactive |
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- A transcription factor binds to the promoter and the genes are switched off.
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The pollen grains or microspores are the male reproductive bodies of a flower and are contained in the pollen sac or microsporangia. Each pollen grain consists of a single microscopic cell, possessing two coats: the exine and the in tine. The exine of a pollen grain is made of chemically stable material. Because of this, pollen grains are often very well preserved for thousands of years in soil and sediments.
The pollen grains or microspores are the male reproductive bodies of a flower and are contained in the pollen sac or microsporangia. Each pollen grain consists of a single microscopic cell, possessing two coats: the exine and the in tine. The exine of a pollen grain is made of chemically stable material. Because of this, pollen grains are often very well preserved for thousands of years in soil and sediments.
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- Sporopollenin.
- Suberin.
- Cellulose.
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- Raphe.
- Germ pores.
- Hilum.
- Endothecium.
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- Emergence of radicle.
- Absorption of water for seed germination.
- Initiation of pollen tube.
- All of these.
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- It protects the vital genetic material in the pollen grain.
- It allows pollen to serve as a valuable fossil record for the study of ancient plants.
- It prevents the pollen tube from growing out before the pollen grain reaches the stigma of a compatible species.
- It gives weight to the pollen grain, allowing it to cling better to the body surfaces of insect pollinators.
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- Three and two.
- Two and three.
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Read the following and answer any four questions from (i) to (v) given below: ln many species of fig trees, there is a tight one-to-one relationship with the pollinator species of wasp. It means that a given fig species can be pollinated only by its 'partner' wasp species and no other species. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while looking for suitable egg-laying sites. ln return for the favour of pollination, the fig offers the wasp some of its developing seeds as food for the developing wasp larvae.
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- Mutualism
- Commensalism
- Amensalism
- Parasitism
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- Plant and animal relation for pollination.
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- Association of cattle egret and grazing cattle.
- Association of fungi and roots of higher plants in mycorrhiza.
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- Parasitism
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- One benefitted other unaffected.
- One inhibited, other unaffected.
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Reason: They show mutualistic relationship.
- Both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion.
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- Assertion is true but reason is false.
- Both assertion and reason are false.
Write a note Lac operon