Psychology 6 Marks Question

Social loafing: Is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task i.e. in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members.
Example - Tug of war or Latane’s clapping experiment.
Group polarization: Strengthening of the group’s initial position as a result of group interaction and discussion.
Groups may take extreme decisions i.e. from very weak to very strong decisions.
Reasons:

1. Like-minded people will favour your view points.
2. Bandwagon effect-one view is validated by public.
3. People having similar views are perceived as ingroup.

The causes of group conflict:

• One major reason is lack of communication and faulty communication by both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results.
• Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a group compare themselves with members of another group, and perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group has. In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger off conflict.
• Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other, and what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other. One may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller differences, thereby conflict gets escalated because every member wants to respect the norms of her/ his group.
• A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group, and actually violates those norms because of a malevolent intent.
• Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict.
• Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts. As already mentioned earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to biased perceptions.
• Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resources, both material resources, e.g. territory, and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect and esteem.

Conflict Resolution strategies:
Conflicts can be reduced if we know about their causes. The processes that increase conflict can be turned around to reduce it also. A number of strategies have been suggested by psychologists. Some of these are:

• Introduction of superordinate goals: Sherif’ s study, already mentioned in the section on cooperation and competition, showed that by introducing superordinate goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups work cooperatively.
• Altering perceptions: Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in society. Promoting empathy for others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning.
• Redrawing group boundaries: Another technique that has been suggested by some psychologists is redrawing the group boundaries. This can be done by creating conditions where groups boundaries are redefined and groups come to perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.

Group polarization refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. These more extreme decisions are towards greater risk if individuals' initial tendencies are to be risky and towards greater caution if individuals' initial tendencies are to be cautious. The phenomenon also holds that a group's attitude toward a situation may change in the sense that the individuals' initial attitudes have strengthened and intensified after group discussion, a phenomenon known as attitude polarization.This firm conviction is because of the following three reasons:

• In the company of like-minded people, you are likely to hear newer arguments favouring your viewpoints. This will make you more favourable towards capital punishment.
• When you find others also favouring capital punishment, you feel that this view is validated by the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect.
• When you find people having similar views, you are likely to perceive them as ingroup. You start identifying with the group, begin showing conformity, and as a consequence your views become strengthened.

The causes of group conflict:

• One major reason is lack of communication and faulty communication by both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results.
• Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a group compare themselves with members of another group, and perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group has. In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger off conflict.
• Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other, and what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other. One may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller differences, thereby conflict gets escalated because every member wants to respect the norms of her/ his group.
• A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group, and actually violates those norms because of a malevolent intent.
• Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict.
• Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts. As already mentioned earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to biased perceptions.
• Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resources, both material resources, e.g. territory, and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect and esteem.

Conflict Resolution strategies:
Conflicts can be reduced if we know about their causes. The processes that increase conflict can be turned around to reduce it also. A number of strategies have been suggested by psychologists. Some of these are :

• Introduction of superordinate goals: Sherif’ s study, already mentioned in the section on cooperation and competition, showed that by introducing superordinate goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups work cooperatively.
• Altering perceptions: Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in society. Promoting empathy for others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning.
• Redrawing group boundaries: Another technique that has been suggested by some psychologists is redrawing the group boundaries. This can be done by creating conditions where groups boundaries are redefined and groups come to perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.

Conformity means behaving according to the group norms i.e. according to the expectations of other group members.

1. Reasons for conformity
2. People conform because they get information about the group so that they come to know what is expected of them in a specific situation in that group.
3. For obtaining approval of other members of the group since disapproval is perceived as a form of social punishment.
4. They believe that the majority view is more likely to be right than wrong.

Differences between compliance and conformity

• Compliance refers to simply behaving in response to a request from another person or a group, even in the absence of a norm where as in conformity presence of norms is a must, which are followed by group members.
• In compliance there is an element of request which is not in conformity.
• In compliance one may refuse to comply with the request where as it is not so in conformity.
• Conformity can be explained with the help of informational influence and normative influence while compliance can be explained with the help of techniques i.e.

1. Foot in the door technique.
2. Deadline technique.
3. Door in the face technique.

Definition of group - A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and inter-dependent, have common motives, have a set of role relationship among its members and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
Characteristics

• A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group.
• A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals.
• A collection of individuals who are interdependent.
• A gathering of individuals who interact with each other.
• Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need.
• Whose interactions are structured by a set of rules and norms.

Stages of formation of group are

• Forming stage (formation).
• Storming stage (conflict).
• Norming stage (stabilisation).
• Performing stage (performance).
• Adjourning stage (dismissal).

• Lack of communication & faulty communication.
• Relative deprivation.
• One party/group is better than the other.
• Feeling that other gr. does not respect the norms of my group.
• Retaliation.
• Biased perception.
• Perceived inequity.
• Aggression and completion.

Introduction of superordinate goals.
Altering perception.
Redrawing group boundaries.
Negotiations.
Increasing intergroup contacts.
Structural solutions.
Respect for other group’s norms.

Conformity means behaving according to the group norms i.e. according to the expectations of other group members.
Reasons for conformity

• People conform because they get information about the group so that they come to know what is expected of them in a specific situation in that group.
• For obtaining approval of other members of the group since disapproval is perceived as a form of social punishment.
• They believe that the majority view is more likely to beright than wrong.

Differences between compliance and conformity

• Compliance refers to simply behaving inresponse to a request from another person or a group even in the absence of a norm whereas in conformity, presence of norms is a must which are followed by group members.
• In compliance there is an element of request which is not in conformity.
• In compliance one may refuse to comply with the request where as it is not so in conformity.
• Conformity can be explained with the help of informational influence and normative influence while compliance can be explained with the help of techniques i.e.

1. Foot in the door technique.
2. Deadline technique.
3. Door in the face technical.

Definition of group - A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and are inter dependent, have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its members and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
Characteristics

• A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group.
• A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals.
• A collection of individuals who are interdependent.
• A gathering of individuals who interact with each other.
• Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need.
• Whose interactions are structured by a set of rules and norms.

Stages of formation of group are
Forming stage (formation)

Storming stage (conflict)

Norming stage (stabilisation)

Performing stage (performance)

Adjourning stage (dismissal).

A group may be defined as an organized system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and inter-dependent, who have common motives, have a set of role
relationships among its members, and have norms that regulate the behavior of its members.
Characteristics:

• Social unit.
• Common motives & goals.
• Interdependence.
• Structured by a set of roles & norms.
• Interaction with one another, directly or indirectly.
• Satisfy a need through their joint association.

Differentiate between groups & teams:

• In groups, performance is dependent on contributions of individual members. In teams, both individual contributions and teamwork matter.
• In group, leader or whoever is heading the group holds. However in teams, although there is a leader, members hold themselves responsible.

Reasons of inter group conflicts:

• Lack of communication & faulty communication.
• Relative deprivation.
• One party/group is better than the other.
• Feeling that other gr. does not respect the norms of my group.
• Retaliation.
• Biased perception.
• Perceived inequity.
• Aggression and completion.

Strategy for resolving conflicts:

• Introduction of superordinate goals: Sherif’s study, already mentioned in the section on cooperation and competition, showed that by introducing superordinate goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups work cooperatively.
• Altering perceptions: Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in society. Promoting empathy for others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning.
• Increasing intergroup contacts: Conflict can also be reduced by increasing contacts between the groups. This can be done by involving groups in conflict on neutral grounds through community projects and events. The idea is to bring them together. so that they become more appreciative of each other’s stand. However, for contacts to be successful, they need to be maintained, which means that they should be supported over a period of time.
• Redrawing group boundaries: Another technique that has been suggested by some psychologists is redrawing the group boundaries. This can be done by creating conditions where groups boundaries are redefined and groups come to perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.

1. Group influence our behaviour in following three forms:

1. ‘Social facilitation’ is a form of group influence.
2. ‘Social facilitation’ refers to a concept that performance on specific task is influenced by the mere presence of others.
3. Norman Triplett observed that individuals show better performance in presence of others, than when they are performing the same task alone.

Better performance in presence of others is because the person experiences According to arousal, which makes the person react in a more intense manner.
The arousal is because the person feels he or she is being evaluated. Cottrell called this idea evaluation apprehension. The person will be praised if performance is good (reward), he/ she will be criticised if it is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid criticism.

As in case of complex task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. And the fear of criticism or punishment is stronger.

If the others present are also performing same task, this is called a situation of co action. When task is simple or a familiar one, performance is better under co-action than when the person is alone.

Task performing can be facilitated and improved or inhibited and worsened by the presence of others. If we are working together in a larger group, the less effort each member puts in. This phenomena is called social loafing, based on diffusion of responsibility.

Diffusion of responsibility can also be frequently seen in situations where people are expected to help.

2. 'Social loafing' refers to reduction in motivation when people are functioning collectively. It is a form of group influence.

1. Group members feel less responsible for the overall tasks being performed and therefore exert less effort.
2. Motivation of members may decrease because they realize that their contributions cannot be evaluated on the individual basis, so to why to work hard.
3. The performance of the group is not to be compared with that of the other groups.
4. There is improper co-ordination (or no co-ordination) among members.

3. Group polarization is a group influence which refers to the strengthening of groups initial position as a result interaction and discussion.

As a result of group discussion opinion shifts towards more extreme positions than those which they initially held.

In group polarization, it has been found that groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. Group polarization occurs due to the following factors:

1. In the company of like-minded people, people are likely to hear newer arguments favouring their view-points.
2. When people find others also favouring their view-point, they feel that their view is validated by the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect.
3. When people find others having similar views, they are likely to perceive them as in-group.

Conformity: It is a most indirect form of social influence in which individuals change their behaviour or beliefs to correspond more closely to the behaviour of others in the group. It essentially involves yielding to group pressure.

• People conform because it is comfortable.
• Non-conformity is socially undesirable and many a times punishable offence.
• Most people believe that majority is always right, so it is better to conform.
• Whenever individual gets confused and not confident he/ she conforms.
• Conformity provides assurance that individual is right.

People conform because of two types of influences:

1. Informational influence, i.e., influence that results from accepting evidence rather than reality.

• It is social influence based on individuals desire to be correct—to possess accurate perceptions of the social world.
• We conform because we have a strong desire to hold the right views. We want to be correct about various matters so we turn to other persons for guidance as to what is appropriate, e.g., if children see that, in the colony, no body is playing in the park then they get information from the actions of others that park should not be used as playground. This is behaving according to evidence then from reality.

2. Normative influence, i.e., influence based on a person’s desire to be accepted or admired by others. Individual follows the reality and conforms.

• We conform in order to meet other’s expectations and so to gain their approval, e.g., if we see rules written on the board outside the park that playing in the park is prohibited then children avoid playing there.
• Sheriff’s experiment known as auto-kinetic effect and Asch’s experiment prove that people do get carried away by the social influence whenever taking decisions.

Determinants of Conformity:
The degree of conformity among the group-members is determined by many factors which are as follows:

1. Size of the Group:

1. Conformity is greater when the group is small. It happens because it is easier for a deviant member to be noticed in a small group.
2. In a large group, if there is strong agreement among most of the members, conformity makes the majority and its norms stronger. In such a case, the minority would be more likely to conform because the group pressure would be stronger.

2. Size of the Minority: When the deviating minority size increases, the likelihood, of conformity decreases.
3. Nature of the Task:

• Where there is something like a correct or an incorrect answer, conformity is more.
• Where answers can vary widely without any answer being correct or incorrect, conformity would be less.

4. Public or Private Expression of Behaviour:

• ​​​​​​​If the group-members are asked to give their answers publicly, conformity is more.
• Less conformity is found under private expression.

5. ​​​​​​​Personality Characteristics: Some individuals have a conforming personality that is tendency to change their behaviour according to what others say or do in most situations and vice- versa.

• Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that the others have opposite interest and both try to contradict each other.
• In such conflicts intense feeling of ‘We’ and ‘They’ dominate.
• Both the groups believe that only their group (in group) will protect their interest. Individual group conflict occurs when the individuals, needs are different from the group’s needs, goals or norms. Inter group conflict refers to the situation of conflict between groups. It often occurs to maintain the identity of the group different and stronger than the other groups.

Some Major Reasons for Group Conflicts:

1. One major reason is lack of communication and faulty communication between both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e., there is a lack of trust and hence, conflict results.
2. Another reason for inter group conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a group compare themselves with the members of another group, and L perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group has.

In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger conflict.

3. Another cause of conflict arises when one party believes that it is better than the other, and what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other.
4. A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group and actually violates those norms, can cause conflict.
5. Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict.
6. Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts.
7. Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resource, both material resources (e.g., territory) and money as well as social resources (e.g., respect and esteem).
8. Perceived inequality is another reason for conflict.
9. According to Gardener Murphy most conflicts begin in the minds of men and then go to the field.

Gardener Murphy, in his book ‘In the Minds of Men’, explains intergroup conflicts at three levels:

1. Structural Level: It includes high rates of poverty, economic and sound stratification, inequality, limited political and social opportunity, e.g., Tribal areas of Jharkhand and West Bengal becoming fertile ground for Naxal movement.
2. Group Level: Social identity, realistic conflict between groups over resources and unequal power relations between groups lead to conflicts, e.g., Dalits in India or Women Empowerment Movement.
3. Individual Level: It includes beliefs, biased attitudes and personality characteristics. These are important determinants.